Exploration of Brain Processes in Reading

Exploration of Brain Processes in ReadingStudies into the human cognition of reading tend to accustom Experimental cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience and Cognitive Neuropsychological science approaches for developing further knowledge of the processes involved in the reading of language.The experimental cognitive psychology approach designs laboratory experiments to reveal the processes which ar involved in the human cognition being researched. The experiments are considered to be a scientific way of researching, as they are passing controlled. (Eysenck and Keane 2010) Using this approach in understanding the processes of reading, involves the use of certain labours in order to study these processes.The cognitive neuroscience approach involves intensive studying of the brilliance and behaviour. collectible to advances in technology, thither are now many dissentent techniques available for studying the brilliance. These techniques obtain detailed in make waterat ion close to the way the brain functions and the anatomical structure of it. From these techniques researchers asshole work out where and when in the brain particular proposition cognitive processes occur, as well as determine the order in which parts of the brain become active when a person performs a task. Researchers slew to a fault find out whether tasks involve the same(p) parts of the brain in the same way, and establish if there are any important differences in the parts of the brain used. (Eysenck and Keane 2010)Cognitive Neuropsychology looks at the patterns of cognitive performance shown by brain damaged endurings, as this can tell us a lot about human cognition. For drill, Epelbaum et al (2008 as cited by Cummine, Dai, Borowsky, Gould, Rollans and Boliek 2013) observed a patient who had developed pure word blindness this is the business leader to perform garner by letter reading, but not whole word reading. The patient developed alexia following a small surgical lesion which damaged the left interior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF) just behind the putative visual word form area (VWFA). Hanley and McDonnel (1997 as cited by Eysenck and Keane 2010) studied Patient PS, who understood the meaning of words when reading, but could not pronounce them. From this research it was suggested that phonological treat is accessed afterwards word meaning when reading. However, there are issues with victimisation this approach to explaining reading and the processes which are involved, as some terms the continue of brain damage on cognitive performances may be camouflaged because patients can develop compensatory strategies.Reicher (1969 as cited by Eysenck and Keane 2010) studied the word superiority effect, by briefly presenting a letter train followed by a pattern mask, participants then had to decide which letter was in a particular position. Reciher lay out that participants performance was better when the letter string formed a word.Rayner and S ereno (1994 as cited by Eysenck and Keane 2010) studied word recognition to assess whether this was automatic or not, they found the Stroop effect, this is when a colour e.g. orangish is printed in a different colour e.g. Red, they found participants took more time to answer than when the colour was printed in either the same colour font or just in black, suggesting that we are not consciously aware of word recognition.Rastle and Brysbaert (2006 as cited by Eysenck and Keane 2010) carried out a meta-analysis of various studies of participants completing lexical close and naming tasks. From the analysis it was found that when words were preceded by primes comparable to them in legal injury of phonology they were processed faster than those words similar to them in terms of spelling. These purposes suggest that phonological bear on occurs automatically and rapidly.Yates (2005 as cited by Eysenck and Keane 2010) used both lexical decision making and naming tasks within their rese arch, to support the boldness that phonological processing is used in visual processing. Yatess research found that within both of these tasks, when words which have many phonological neighbours (words which differ in one syllable from each other) are fixated on for less time than those with fewer phonological neighbours.There are a number of issues and limitations within the experimental cognitive psychology approach. Often, the cognitive tasks involve the use of a complex mixture of different processes and it is hard to interpret the findings, for example, the Stroop Effect mentioned above, it is difficult to interpret what processes are actively involved in interpreting the colour of the word and reading it.Often the way the studies are controlled can limit how ecologically valid they are, for example in the lexical decision tasks participants have to decide if a string of letters forms a word and in the naming tasks they have to as pronto as possible pronounce visually present ed words. Within these tasks normal reading times of participants are disrupted by the requirement to respond to the task, therefore can the results be generalised to real life and the wider population? Also, as both of the tasks, are not tasks we often engage in when reading normally, this can also impact on how true to real life the results are.There are also issues when interpreting the task performance results, as it provides us with indirect proof about the internal processes involved in the cognition of reading, and it is difficult to decide at what time processes occur, whether they are at the same time, with some overlap, or at different times. For example, in Rastle and Brysbaerts study it is unsure from the results whether phonological processing occurs before word meaning is accessed. However, this can often be clarified by using brain imaging techniques.Khateb and Annoni et al (1999) recorded event related potentials (ERPs) during a semantic and a phonological reading t ask to determine the time period when semantic and phonological processing start to differently activate the neuronal language network in the brain. From the results the researchers found that these differences did not significantly occur. return related potentials are linked to the use of EEG which is based on recordings of electrical brain action mechanism measured at the surface of the scalp ERP is a way of resolving one of the limitations of the EEG technique. ERP involves presenting the same stimulus to participants several times, as this resolves any spontaneous or background brain activity from obscuring the impact of the processing of the stimulus on the recording. ERPs have a number of strengths in terms of their contributions towards research. They provide safe temporal resolution, can indicate when a given process occurred to within a few milliseconds, e.g. in Khateb, Annoni et als study the difference between activation of semantic and phonological processing was only for 100 milliseconds. This technique also provides detailed information about the time course of brain activity, compared to a lot of other techniques. However, the technique does not precisely indicate which regions of the brain are most involved in processing.Cao, Bitan and Booth (2008) used dynamic casual modelling (DCM) and MRI to examine the utile connectivity between three regions in the left hemisphere of the brain in children with and without reading difficulties when completing a rhyming perceptiveness task. The researchers found that the modulatory effect from the left fusiform whirl to the left inferior parietal lobule was weaker in children with reading difficulties when completing the conflicting trials of the rhyming judgement task (where the words had either similar orthography but different phonology, or had different orthography and phonology). Another finding is that the modulatory effect from the left fusiform gyrus to the inferior frontal gyrus was significantl y greater in conflicting trials than non conflicting trials in the children in the control group however, this was not apparent in the children with reading difficulties. The final finding was that the modulatory effect from the left inferior frontal gyrus to the left inferior parietal lobe and the bidirectional modulatory effects between the left inferior parietal lobule and median(a) frontal gyrus were demonstrablely correlated with reading skills in the control group of children only.MRI tells us about the structure of the brain by using radio waves to excite atoms in the brain, which produces magnetic changes which are detected by a large magnet these changes are then interpreted by a computer and changed into a very precise 3d image. However, as most cognitive psychologists wish to look at the functions of the brain rather than the structure, MRI can be a limited technique to use when studying human cognitions. This can be resolved though by using the fMRI technique which lo oks at the functions of the brain.Meyler and Keller et al (2007) used fMRI to examine brain activity during a visual sentence comprehension task among poor and high ability readers. Meyler and Keller et al used a higher level comprehension task in order to expand on previous research which found a reduced or absent activation in the left parietotemporal and occipitotemporal cortices in individuals who suffer from dyslexia or have a low reading ability. The results form Meyer et als research found that poor reading ability was associated with reduced activation in those areas compared to those of higher reading ability. There was also a positive linear relationship between reading ability and cortical activation in Wernickes area, the right inferior parietal lobule, and the left post primeval gyrus.Mechelli and Crinion et al (2005) using fMRI wanted to build on the theory that readers employ word specific knowledge and general information about how a combination of words corresponds to phonological representations by exploring how neuronal interactions within the reading system are influenced by word type. The pars triangularis showed increased activation for riddance words compared to pseudo words, however, in the dorsal premotor cortex, increased activation was found for pseudowords compared to exception words, and finally the pars occercularis showed increased activation in exception words compared to even words, and for pseudo words compared to regular words.Bavelier et al (1997 as cited by Pinel 2011) used fMRI to measure the brain activity of participants whilst they read silently. The fMRI used in this study was particularly sensitive meaning that the researchers could identify areas of activity more accurately than in previous studies. The researchers recorded brain activity during the reading of sentences. The participants realised in periods of silent reading followed by a control period where they were presented with strings of consonants, which served as a basis for determining those areas of cortical activity associated with reading. Bavelier at al found in the lateral cortical surfaces which were monitored that there was a difference in the cortical activity. The results showed tiny areas of activity separated by areas of inactivity, these patches of activity were variable, and differed between participants, and from trial to trial on the same participant. Although some of the activity was observed in the classic Wernicke geschwind area, it was widespread over the lateral surface of the brain. It was found that there was significant activity in the right hemisphere, however considerably more activity was detected in the left hemisphere.FMRI assesses distortions in the local anaesthetic magnetic field and provides a measure of the concentration of deoxyhaemoglobin in the blood. This technique shows temporal and spatial resolution at a higher level than PET. However, there are flaws with this technique as it provides an indirect measure of underlying neural activity. Also, as this technique involves the participants being encased into a scanner, some participants can pure tone uncomfortable, find it upsetting and experience side effects (Cooke, Peel, Shaw, Senior 2007 as cited by Eysenck and Keane 2010).The use of the experimental cognitive psychology approach provides a good basis for cognitive neuroscience research to study further, as although it can provide some explanation for what processes may be involved in reading, it cannot provide specific information on what part of the brain these processes occur in, or in what order and so forth. By combining both the experimental cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience approaches, more in depth research can be conducted. For example, Cao, Bitan and Booths study with combines the use of DCM, MRI and a rhyming judgement task provides more information and explanations for poorer reading abilities. Or Mechelli and Crinion et als research combine d the use of fMRI and a phonological task finding that there are distinct regions within the left prefrontal cortex activated differently depending on the word type being read. Finally, the use of cognitive neuropsychology provides explanations for the processes involved in reading by studying patients with brain damage who have issues in certain cognitions presumed to be involved in reading, and examining which parts of the brain are damaged.Word Count 2071ReferencesCao, F., Bitan, T. and Booth, J. (2008) Effective brain connectivity with reading difficulties during phonological processing Brain and Language Vol. 107 pp. 91 101 onlineCummine, J., Dai, W., Borowsky, R., Gould, L., Rollans, C. and Boliek, C. (2013) probe the ventral lexical, dorsal sublexical model of basic reading processes using diffusion tensor imaging Brain Structure and Function Vol. 218, No.6 onlineEysenck, M. and Keane, M (2010) Cognitive Psychology A Students Handbook 6th ed. New York Psychology PressKhat eb, A., Annoni, J-M., Landis, T., Pegna, A., Custodi, M-C., Fonteneau, E., Morand, S. and Michel, C. (1999) Spatio-temporal analysis of electric brain activity during semantic and phonological word processing International Journal of Psychophysiology Vol.32 pp. 215-231 onlineMechelli, A., Crinion, J., Long, S., Friston, K., Lambon Ralph, M., Patterson, K., McClelland, J. and Price, C. (2005) Dissociating Reading Processes on the Basis of Neuronal Interactions, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol17. No.11, pp 1753 1765 onlineMeyler, A., Keller, T., Cherkassky, V., Lee, D., Hoeft, F., Whitfield-Gabrielli, S., Gabrielle, J. and Just., M (2007) Brain Activation during Sentence Comprehension among proficient and Poor Readers, Cerebal Cortex, Vol 17. No.12, pp. 2780 2787 onlinePinel, J. (2011) Biopsychology 8th ed. Boston Pearson Education

The Physics of Basketball Essay examples -- Athletics Sports Essays

The Physics of Basketball The NBA playoffs are making the headlines all over. Every news channel, sports channel, and newspaper has a story about the tremendous crippleds. Everyone is making bets as to who will be the big champions. Will it be the defending champions, Los Angeles Lakers, or will it possibly be one of the underdogs. This is the most intensive time of year for wicketball fans as they watch the teams battle out the game. Up and down the court, the turnovers, rebounds, fast breaks, and most of all the handbaskets make the games exciting. But conduct you ever wondered how these things happen? What enables the hoops to bounce, how does Kobe Bryant fly through the aviation, and why does the ball rotate backwards as it leaves a shooters hand and approaches the basket? These are all interesting questions and believe it or not they can all be answered with a discussion on physics. Whenever you watch a basketball game you are watching the application of physics. It is very much at work in the game of basketball (Hawkins).One of the key pieces of equipment in the game is the basketball itself. The ability of the ball to bounce is entirely explained by physics. The law of conservation of energy says that the total energy of an isolated system does not miscellanea (Kirkpatrick, 131). When the ball comes in contact with the floor an elastic collision occurs in which the kinetic energy of the system is conserved. Two things determine the elasticity the air bosom in the ball and the surface it is colliding with. The more pressure in the ball, the better the bounce and the greater elasticity. The energy will be stored in the compressed air inside the ball creating a greater bounce. Air stores and returns energy more efficiently than ... ... air, just remember that it takes the same amount of time for him to reach the basket as it does for him to fall. You may also want to notice how the ball spins as well as how it bounces. As you are watching the p layoffs this year keep in mind that the application of physics is very much at work in the game of basketball. BibliographyHawkins, Bethany. Physics of Basketball. Intro to Basketball and Physics. http//www.kent.wednet.edu/staff/trobins/physicspages/PhysOf1998. 25 butt against 2003.Kirkpatrick, Larry D., Wheeler, Gerald F. Physics A World View. Fourth edition, Harcourt College Publishers. Orlando, Florida. 2001.Willis, Bill. The Physics of Basketball. http//www.geocities.com/thesciencefiles/physicsof/basketball.html. 13 March 2003.Brancazio, Peter J. Physics of Sports. Physics of Basketball. Department of Physics. Brooklyn, New York. 1981.

Physical Child Development Essay -- Human Development Infant Essays

Child Development Babies grow and develop at a very rapid rate during the foremost year of life. They grow physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially. In this paper I will discuss the physical growth and maturation patterns of an infant all the way through adulthood. Development is the babys increased skill in using various body small-arms. When dealing with a development of a peasant there are three basic development oerlooks. First development rule This rule says that babies develop in the offer region first, then the trunk, and lastly in the legs and feet. For example, a baby can hold up their head before they can grasp an object with their hand. Also they can feed themselves before they can walk. Second development rule The second development rule explains that children develop from the mid line, or center of the body, outward toward the fingers and toes. Third development rule Finally, this rule reveals that, as the brain develops, a child responds to more and more s ights and sounds in their environment. Furthermore, they learn to respond to much finer details. A general rule is that a baby increases in height by 50% and triples its support weight in the first year. Clearly, this is a very rapid growth rate however, the rate of growth slows down after infancy. At three months, a baby is alert and responding to the world. When put on their tummy, they can hold their chest and head up for ten seconds. They try to swipe at toys hung over the crib. They bias their heads toward an interesting sound or listen to voices. Babies love to stare at peoples faces. They coo and gurgle. At six months a baby is developing control over its body. They can stupefy with support and may sit alone for short periods of time. They can roll over. They will hold out their arms to be get up up or reach and grab an object. They can hold their own bottles and toys. They laugh out loud, babbles, calls for help and screams when annoyed. At nine months babies are explor ing their environment. They can sit unassisted, crawl, pull to a stand and sidestep along furniture. They can use their fingers to point, poke, and grasp small objects. They feed themselves finger foods. Babies know their names and respond to primary commands. She babbles a pattern as if she were speaking a foreign language. At twelve months a baby is striving for independence. They stand and may walk by the... ...dolescence. Puberty rites signal acknowledgment of a young woman or young man has reached the age of responsibility, virility and community productivity, and these rites make an impression on the teenager or adolescent. Puberty rites are an attempt to mold and educate the teenagers and prepare them for their new role in life. Today, in our western culture part of the world, we have no clearly defined rites however our rites are randomly scattered throughout the mid-teen years. For teenagers, getting your drivers license, entering college, turning legal age, traveling cro sswise America or to Europe are all social rites. To further complicate matters, the period of adolescence has probably doubled in length since Mr. Hall first identified it, our children mature younger and younger and take longer and longer to prepare for fully engaged membership into adulthood. Through all of the readings on child and adolescent development, it is clear that children from birth through teen years all develop according to many factors society, peers, education, family life, finances, fetal development, pre dispositions, and basically anything or anyone that the child may come in contact with.

Essay --

Geier v. University of Tennessee 597 F.2d 1056 (6th cir 1979)FactsFaculty member of Tennessee State University (TSU) Rita Geier (nee Sanders) sought an injunction with the district court to prohibit the proposed expansion of the University of Tennessee at capital of Tennessee (UT-N). TSU, a historically black university governed by the State Board of Regents, was the only 4-year degree granting public institution in the greater Nashville country duration UT-N operated under the independent governance of the University of Tennessee Board and served as devil-year non-degree granting extension college of the UT system. Geier asserted that the expansion of UT-N to a four-year degree granting institution would hold two separate, distinct, and segregated systems of higher education within the State of Tennessee.The United States, an interviewing plaintiff-appellee, asserted that the State of Tennessee was in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the fourteenth amendment with the justification that TSU students received unequitable educational opportunities in comparison to students within the University of Tennessee (UT) system. The United States sought for UT-N and TSU to be merged with an additional requirement of a formal picture of integrating to be developed by UT, the Tennessee Higher Education Commission (THEC), and the State Board of Regents (SBR).Geiers request for an injunction was denied based upon the court non purpose records to verify that UT-N was attempting to expand into a degree-granting day institution. The district court did however rule that the State of Tennessees open admission policy was not sufficient enough to satisfy the freedoms protected under the 14th amendment and ordered the state defendants (UT Board, THEC, and... ...ill subject to state and federal governance. The federal constitution was a chance upon agentive role within the district courts decisions as well as the appellate courts decisions and it is imperative that we as policy makers are upholding laws appropriately. Additionally, we after part learn from the inaction of THEC, the SBR, and the UT board. They had several failed attempts to desegregate the system and the district court ruled multiple times that they were not making decorous progress. wherefore they did not make a sustained effort to dismantle the dual system and end segregation can only be hypothesized and as policy makers and campus leaders we can learn from their mistakes. The formation of campus diversity offices and presidential taskforces that consider campus climate are prime examples of how we are more than assured affording students with an equitable educational opportunity. Essay -- Geier v. University of Tennessee 597 F.2d 1056 (6th cir 1979)FactsFaculty member of Tennessee State University (TSU) Rita Geier (nee Sanders) sought an injunction with the district court to prohibit the proposed expansion of the University of Tennessee at Nashvil le (UT-N). TSU, a historically black university governed by the State Board of Regents, was the only 4-year degree granting public institution in the greater Nashville area while UT-N operated under the independent governance of the University of Tennessee Board and served as two-year non-degree granting extension college of the UT system. Geier asserted that the expansion of UT-N to a four-year degree granting institution would maintain two separate, distinct, and segregated systems of higher education within the State of Tennessee.The United States, an interviewing plaintiff-appellee, asserted that the State of Tennessee was in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th amendment with the justification that TSU students received unequitable educational opportunities in comparison to students within the University of Tennessee (UT) system. The United States sought for UT-N and TSU to be merged with an additional requirement of a formal plan of desegregation to be develope d by UT, the Tennessee Higher Education Commission (THEC), and the State Board of Regents (SBR).Geiers request for an injunction was denied based upon the court not finding records to verify that UT-N was attempting to expand into a degree-granting day institution. The district court did however rule that the State of Tennessees open admission policy was not sufficient enough to satisfy the freedoms protected under the 14th amendment and ordered the state defendants (UT Board, THEC, and... ...ill subject to state and federal governance. The federal constitution was a key factor within the district courts decisions as well as the appellate courts decisions and it is imperative that we as policy makers are upholding laws appropriately. Additionally, we can learn from the inaction of THEC, the SBR, and the UT board. They had several failed attempts to desegregate the system and the district court ruled multiple times that they were not making adequate progress. Why they did not make a sustained effort to dismantle the dual system and end segregation can only be hypothesized but as policy makers and campus leaders we can learn from their mistakes. The formation of campus diversity offices and presidential taskforces that consider campus climate are prime examples of how we are more cognizant affording students with an equitable educational opportunity.

Graduation Speech: Life is a Blank Canvas -- Graduation Speech, Commen

My father always told me that my life is a blank meditate waiting for me to paint my future upon it. As I stand here before my fellow classmates, cherished friends and beloved teachers, I see more than further a graduating class, I see a group of artists waiting to exhibit their art to the world.See, the beauty of my fathers analogy lies in the fact that we have all been given over the right to choose our own destiny, essentially to paint whatever we ask on our canvases of life. Our parents, teachers and friends have taught us all the techniques we need to embrace a magnificent and beautiful future, and now with this diploma, we stand alone with a paintbrush, palette and a world waiting our arrival.The question now is how do you go from where you are to where you want to be? I dont think there is a universal answer to this question, but I do think that youll find an answer for yourself once you meet that even though life may appear to be the highest mountain, you can walk over it taking one step at a time. As a painter, you get to determine what kind of day you are going to have, ...

Schindlers List Essay -- essays research papers

Schindlers ListOskar Schindler was a wealthy German industrialist, who made such(prenominal) of his wealth by employing Jewish men and women in his various factories. In the movie Schindlers List, it starts off with Schindler in a restaurant with many senior high ranking Nazi officers eating there. He starts off by buying a officer a bottle of expensive wine, but it does not peculiarity there. Before the night is gone he has boughten dinner for all of the officers. This is how he made friends, friends with power.At this point the War was already underway and Schindler seized an oppurtunity to put one over money. Thinking ahead he hires a Jewish accountant that he believes is very qualified for that position. At first this accountant is careful of the way he acts around Schindler because Schindler is a member of the Nazi Party and fears for his life.The point of the movie in which Schindler starts to view the Jewish people differently is when the Nazis start to flush knocked ou t(p) the ghettos. From a hilltop he watches, especially a little girl walking through the streets like she is abandoned. At this time he starts to pull his favors from those officers he treated to dinner a while back. He meets Geoth, a SS officer that is known for his cruelty in the Concentration Camps. Schindler starts to gain the trust and admiration of Geoth and he takes advantage of that friendship. He tells Geoth that he will pay him a certain am...

Assisi, Italy Essay example -- Observation Essays, Descriptive Essays

Assisi Before and After Francis and Clare? Assisi is a town located in the province of Perugia and Umbrian region of key Italy (?Assisi?).? It is located at the foot of Monte Subasio, which is 1300 feet or 400 meters above sea level. The narrow, winding streets and the surrounding city walls are indicative of the region?s medieval history (?Assisi?).? Although the town is primarily known as the birthplace of St. Francis, it was an important location for the Umbrians, Etruscans, and roman prints (?Assisi?).? As an ancient Umbrian center, the townspeople fought with the neighboring Etruscan cities.? In 89 BC, Assisi became a confederated Roman city and a municipium named Asisium (?12. Franciscan Sanctuaries?).? Today the remains of the Roman forum, the amphitheater, and most noticeably the Temple of Minerva serve as a volition to this citys ancient Roman origins.? In the early Middle Ages, the town was subject to the dukes of Spoleto, and in the 12th century, Assisi became an i ndependent commune involved in internal disputes and wars with Perugia.? It fall in the Papal States in the 16th century and the Italian kingdom in 1860 (?Assisi?).? The medieval architecture and religious artwork left by the various inhabitants of Assisi set out given this town a timeless quality.? Although it is a town of the twenty-first century, millions of tourists and religious pilgrims flock to the area seeking simplicity, reflection, and peace.From Paganism to Christianity Under the Romans Under the Roman Emperor Augustus, the grand Forum was constructed various temples were built the city walls were completed the baths and healing springs of mineral waters were opened and the theater was constructed along side the amphitheatre.? T... ....Connor, bloody shame OSC. Personal Interview. 10 November 2003.?Earthquake Jolts Assisi.? Franciscans and St. Anthony Press. 16 Nov. 2003. .Lattin, Don.? ?A Renaissance in Assisi St. Francis? Hometowns Rebuilds After 1997 Quakes.? Th e San Francisco Chronicle. 12-23-99, A-1.Miller, Ramona, O.S.F. In the Footsteps of Saint Clare - A Pilgirms Guide Book. St. Bonaventure, NY The Franciscan Institute, 1993.?Temple of Minvera.? Convento S. Antonio. 16 Nov. 2003. .?1. St. Francis and St. Clare ? Life and Times.? Franciscan Institute Outreach ? Malta. 19 Nov. 2003. http//198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAlife1.html.? 12. Franciscan Sanctuaries.? Franciscan Institute Outreach ? Malta. 19 Nov. 2003. .